Class 10 - Conservation I

Outline
• 1. Review of link between diversity and conservation.
• 2. Lionfish invading the Atlantic.
• 3. Red coral in the Mediterranean.
• 4. Coral reef conservation - unique problems.
• 5. Community conservation in the Philippines.
• 6. Conclusions.
Part 1 - Review of biodiversity and conservation
Biodiversity
• Biodiversity = Number of taxa (species, genera), or ecosystem types, etc.
• Biodiversity = bioresources.
• Bioresources = long-term economic well-being.
• Conserving biodiversity is important; we need to understand baseline biodiversity.
• Many “neglected taxa” remain.
保全と多様性のリンク
• Species diversity (# of species) for many groups of animals and plants unknown - lack of taxonomy.
• 分類学の研究が足りないせいで、色々な生物の集団の種類多様性（種の数）がほとんど知れていない状態。
• 99.5% of species go extinct before we even describe them.
• 99.5%の種類は、分類する前に絶滅になってしまう。
• Without knowledge of species, how can we protect them?
• 種類の分類が無いと、保全ができない。
• Therefore, taxonomy and diversity VERY important.
• 分類学や多様性の理解が重要な研究。
• BUT…
Dangers facing coral reefs
• Global warming is raising the temperature of the ocean; this kills corals - “coral bleaching”.
• Also, as the oceans become more acidic, it is more difficult for corals to make their skeletons.
• Perhaps 90% of coral reefs will be dead by 2050.


• Crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks

• Dynamite and cyanide fishing

Part 2 - Lionfish invading the Atlantic

• Lionfish known from the Indo-Pacific.
• Mainly eat reef fish, and often larvae or juveniles.
• Popular in the aquarium trade despite poison.

• Marine fish introductions less common.
• Most introductions due to purposeful introduction for fisheries, or released aquarium fish.
• Success often investigated.

• Whitfield et al. (2002) document several sightings (n=19) of Pterois volitans along E. Atlantic.
• Four specimens collected, numerous juveniles sighted, two collected.
• First introduction of Pacific fish to Atlantic.


• Likely limited by cold waters, but surviving.
• Can spread to Bermuda and Caribbean.
• Similar fish in this region overfished, niche is available perhaps!

Introduction?
• Introduction method; 2 possibilities.
• Ballast water possible, but no reports thus far.
• Aquaria very likely. Specimens known to have been released occasionally.
• Morphology appears to be typical of aquaria types.
Effects?
• No fish in region used to lionfish.
• No predators.
• Need genetic and temperature studies.
• Modeling needed.


Spreading populations
• Since sightings in 2000, lionfish have spread.
• Now known (Snyder&Burgess 2006) from Bahamas.
• Apparently spreading throughout Caribbean.
• Easy to document spread.
Genetic studies
• Since Whitfield et al (2002), more studies.
• Hamner et al. (2007) used mt DNA to examine specimens.
• Two markers (cyt B, 16S rDNA) previously used on lionfish in native ranges.

• Found two species of lionfish; P. volitans (93%) and P. miles (7%).
• Very reduced genetic diversity!
Minimum-spanning network analyses - P. volitans
• Atlantic specimens likely from Indonesia.

• P. miles source unknown.

• Reduced genetic diversity clear.
• Founder effect! Minimum of 3 P. volitans and 1 P. miles established populations.
• Invasions may be rapid and irreversible.
• Education needed.
Part 3 - Red coral in the Mediterranean
Red coral
• Corallium rubrum is a precious coral in the Mediterranean.
• Found 10 -250 m.
• Harvested for long time, over-exploited.
• Harvest reduced 66% in last 15 years.

Population structure
• Two population types, large deep colonies and shallow small colonies.
• Large drop off in shallow water at age 4, due to sponges and collection.

• Genetic distance becomes significant at 100s of kms.
• Thus, preservation of numerous populations needed.
• Management on regional scale needed.
• Must avoid local extinctions.
Conservation recommendations
• Must be managed at national and international scales.
• Only policy that works for such species.
• Set minimum colony sizes, maximum yield per area, harvesting seasons.
Part 4 - Conservation problems unique to coral reefs

• On land, biodiversity hotspots arise from small ranges and endemism.
• Examples include the Galapagos and Ryukyu Islands.

Hughes et al. 2002
• Coral reefs are different.
• Central Indo-Pacific (coral triangle) has very high biodiveristy.
• Arises from many species with large ranges having overlapping ranges in CIP.

• No correlation between numbers of coral endemics and reef fish endemics at locations, even though total numbers related.
• Endemism does not contribute much to high biodiversity of coral reefs.

• Centers of high biodiversity and endemism are separate!
• Two part approach to conservation needed.

Implications for conservation
• 8% of the CIP has 83% of coral species and 58% of fish species.
• CIP protection is cost effective.
• Endemics at peripheral locations (e.g. Red Sea, Madagascar).
• Such locations have lower biodiversity, higher risk for extinction.
Recommendations
• MPAs now too small in size and number, too far apart.
• Focus on fish and mega-fauna, also coral.
• Small and cryptic taxa ignored.
• Need to work more on these taxa.
Part 5 - Community conservation of coral reefs
History
• Philippines consist of 7000+ islands.
• Centuries have used reefs for livelihood.
• Since 1970s, threatened by over-exploitation and destructive fishing methods.

• Conservation started in 1974. Many projects failed.
• Politics tied to conservation.
• Local governments have authority but not knowledge or budget.
• To be successful, combination of local and national people.
• Within local group, must include users of reef; fishermen, resort owners, coastal residents, scuba divers.
Start of conservation
• MDCP started in 1986 on three islands (62-166 households); Apo, Pamilacan, Balicasag.
• All had less fish catch, increasing destruction and poverty.

MCDP plan
• Marine reserves with buffer areas to increase number and diversity fish.
• Development of local knowledge and alternative work.
• Community center.
• Outreach and replication program.
MCDP steps
• Integration into community.
• Education - marine ecology and resource management.
• Group building, formalizing, strengthening.
Results
• Apo & Pamilacan remain strong.
• Balicasag protection groups somewhat weakened due to large PTA resort and less local “ownership”.
• PTA has good points too.
• All islands have stronger municipal laws now.
Results
• Local fisherman believe sanctuary has helped.
• Comparison of 1985-86 data with 1992 shows increases in fish, stable coral cover.
Conclusions
• MPAs work on small islands by preventing destructive fishing and making locals understand value of conservation.
• Small islands easier to implement plans.
• Immediate benefits must be seen.
• Baseline data necessary.
• Local fishermen help with MPA location decisions.
Conclusions
• Locals must understand how problem and answer related.
• Management groups must have respected members.
• Link with all potentially helpful groups.
• All plans vulnerable to politics and outside groups.
Part 6 - Conclusions

Conclusions 2
• In the future, more conservation plans will be implemented.
• The gap between well protected areas and those not protected will widen.

Conclusion 3
• Very few non-protected reefs will survive.
References cited:
1. Whitfield et al. 2002. Biological invasion of the Indo-Pacific lionfish Pterois volitans along the Atlantic coast of North America. Mar Ecol Prog Ser 235: 289-297.
2. Snyder & Burgess. 2007. The Indo-Pacific red lionfish, Pterois volitans (Pisces: Scorpaenidae), new to Bahamian ichthyofauna. Coral Reefs 26: 175.
3. Hamner et al. 2007. Mitochondrial cytochrome b analysis reveals two invasive lionfish species with strong founder effects in the western Atlantic. J Fish Biol 71: 214-222.
4. Santangelo & Abbiati. 2001. Red coral: conservation and management of an over-exploited Mediterranean species. Aquatic Conserv Mar Freshwater Ecosys 11: 253-259.
5. Hughes et al. 2002. Biodiversity hotspots, centres of endemicity, and the conservation of coral reefs. Ecol Let 5: 775-784.
6. White & Vogt. 2000. Philippine coral reefs under threat: lessons learned after 25 years of community-based reef conservation. Mar Poll Bull 40: 537-550.